Chapter 1 From The Beginning Of Time

The Story Of Human Evolution

Human existence began approximately 5.6 million years ago with the emergence of the first human-like creatures. Over vast periods, various human forms evolved and subsequently became extinct. Our own species, modern humans, appeared around 160,000 years ago. Throughout this extensive history, humans sustained themselves by gathering plants and hunting animals, while also developing stone tool technology and communication methods. While other food acquisition strategies were later adopted, hunting and gathering remained a primary mode of subsistence and continues to be practiced by some societies today.

The study of early human history relies on discoveries of human fossils, stone tools, and cave paintings. Initially, many scholars were skeptical about the antiquity and significance of these findings, questioning whether they represented early humans or their capabilities in tool making and art. Over time, the importance of these discoveries has become evident, contributing to our understanding of human evolution.

Evidence for human evolution is primarily derived from fossils of extinct human species. These fossils can be dated through direct chemical analysis or indirect methods by examining the surrounding sediments. By dating fossils, a chronological sequence of human evolution can be established. Early resistance to accepting these findings was often rooted in religious beliefs, particularly the biblical account of creation, which posited a divine origin for humanity, contradicting evolutionary theories.

A pivotal moment in the study of evolution was the publication of Charles Darwin's "On the Origin of Species" on 24 November 1859, which proposed that humans evolved from animals over a long period. The discovery of Neanderthal remains in 1856 in the Neander valley, Germany, initially met with disbelief, with scholars attributing the skull and skeletal fragments to a more recent individual. However, later joint publication by Fuhlrott and Schaaffhausen proposed it represented an extinct human form, a view that gradually gained acceptance.

The Precursors Of Modern Human Beings

The evolutionary journey leading to modern humans can be traced back between 36 and 24 million years ago with the emergence of primates in Asia and Africa. By approximately 24 million years ago, a subgroup of primates called hominoids, which includes apes, appeared. Further evolution led to the emergence of hominids around 5.6 million years ago. Hominids, unlike hominoids, are characterized by an upright posture and bipedal locomotion, a larger brain, and specialized hands for tool making and use. The African apes are considered the closest relatives to hominids, and the earliest hominid fossils, belonging to the genus Australopithecus, have been found in East Africa, dating back to around 5.6 million years ago.

The genus Australopithecus, meaning "southern ape," retained ape-like features such as a smaller brain, larger back teeth, and limited hand dexterity, suggesting they still spent considerable time in trees. Over time, with the increasing use of tools and the development of long-distance walking, human characteristics evolved further. The genus Homo, which emerged around 2.5 million years ago during a period of glaciation and changing climate that favored grasslands, is distinguished by a larger brain, less protruding jaws, and smaller teeth compared to Australopithecus. This genus includes species like Homo habilis (tool maker), Homo erectus (upright man), and Homo sapiens (wise man).

Fossils of Homo habilis have been found in Ethiopia and Tanzania, while Homo erectus fossils are present in both Africa and Asia, suggesting migration from East Africa to other continents between 2 and 1.5 million years ago. Species names are often derived from their characteristics or the locations of their discovery, such as Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis (Neanderthals). Neanderthals inhabited Europe and Western/Central Asia from about 130,000 to 35,000 years ago, disappearing abruptly in Western Europe around 35,000 years ago.

The Evolution Of The Hand

The evolution of the human hand, particularly the development of both a power grip and a precision grip, was crucial for tool making and use. The precision grip, seen in modern humans, allows for fine manipulation of objects, while the power grip enables a strong hold. These advancements, along with an increased brain size, improved memory, and complex organizational skills, distinguished early humans from apes and were instrumental in their survival and development.

The Positive Feedback Mechanism

Human evolution is understood through a positive feedback mechanism where certain developments enhanced others. For instance, bipedalism freed the hands for carrying infants or objects, and the increased use of hands further refined upright walking. This mechanism also applied to brain development, tool making, and diet. For example, bipedalism saved energy during walking, although it was less efficient for running. Fossil footprints from Laetoli, Tanzania, dating back to 3.6 million years ago, provide early evidence of bipedalism, with more direct evidence from fossil limb bones found in Hadar, Ethiopia.

Homo Habilis

Homo habilis, meaning "tool maker," is one of the earliest species of the genus Homo. Fossils attributed to this species have been discovered in Omo, Ethiopia, and Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania. Their association with the earliest stone tools suggests their significant role in early hominid technological development.

Homo Erectus

Homo erectus, meaning "upright man," represents a species that migrated out of Africa. The earliest fossils of Homo erectus are found in both Africa and Asia, indicating their expansion across continents between 2 and 1.5 million years ago. This species survived for nearly a million years.

Homo Heidelbergensis

Homo heidelbergensis fossils have been found across Africa, Asia, and Europe, dating from approximately 0.8 to 0.1 million years ago. This species is considered a form of archaic Homo sapiens.

Neanderthals

Neanderthals, scientifically classified as Homo neanderthalensis, occupied Europe and parts of Asia from about 130,000 to 35,000 years ago. They represent another significant group of archaic Homo sapiens.

Archaic Homo Sapiens

Archaic Homo sapiens encompasses species like Homo heidelbergensis and Homo neanderthalensis, representing earlier forms of modern humans that existed before the full emergence of Homo sapiens sapiens.

Homo Sapiens Sapiens/Modern Humans

Homo sapiens sapiens is the scientific classification for modern humans. The earliest evidence for this species has been found in various parts of Africa, leading to debates about the single origin versus multiple regional origins of modern humans.

Modern Human Beings

The origin of modern humans is a subject of much debate, with two main models proposed: the regional continuity model and the replacement model. The regional continuity model suggests that archaic Homo sapiens in different regions evolved at varying rates into modern humans, explaining the differences observed in the appearance of modern humans globally. This view is supported by regional variations in present-day human features, attributed to the regional differences in earlier Homo erectus and Homo heidelbergensis populations.

Conversely, the replacement model posits a single origin for modern humans in Africa, followed by their spread and replacement of older human forms globally. Evidence supporting this model includes the genetic and anatomical homogeneity of modern humans, suggesting a common ancestral population from Africa. The oldest fossils of modern humans, found in Omo, Ethiopia, also lend support to this theory. According to this model, observed physical differences among modern humans are the result of adaptation to specific regional environments over thousands of years by migrating populations.

The Replacement And Regional Continuity Models

The core of the debate lies in whether modern humans evolved simultaneously in different regions (regional continuity) or originated from a single ancestral population in Africa and then migrated outwards (replacement). Supporters of the regional continuity model point to variations in human features across different geographical areas as evidence of long-term localized evolution. In contrast, proponents of the replacement model emphasize the genetic similarities among all modern humans, suggesting a recent common ancestry from Africa, with subsequent adaptations leading to regional diversity.

The Earliest Fossils Of Modern Humans

The earliest fossil evidence for Homo sapiens sapiens has been found in several locations, with the oldest dating back to between 195,000 and 160,000 years ago in Omo, Ethiopia. Other significant finds include those from South Africa (120,000-50,000 years ago), Morocco (70,000-50,000 years ago), Israel (100,000-80,000 years ago), Australia (45,000-35,000 years ago), Borneo (40,000 years ago), and France (35,000 years ago). These discoveries help in reconstructing the timeline and geographical spread of early modern human populations.

Early Humans: Ways Of Obtaining Food

Early humans obtained food through various methods, including gathering, scavenging, hunting, and fishing. Gathering involved collecting edible plant parts like seeds, nuts, berries, fruits, and tubers. While assumed to be a significant activity, direct evidence for gathering is scarce due to the rarity of fossilized plant remains. However, the accidental burning of plant matter can lead to carbonization, preserving organic material for long periods, though such evidence from very early periods is limited.

Gathering

Gathering, the collection of wild plant foods, was likely a fundamental aspect of early human subsistence. While direct archaeological evidence is sparse, it is inferred that early humans utilized a variety of plant resources available in their environment.

Scavenging

Recent scholarly discussions suggest that early hominids may have primarily scavenged or foraged for meat and marrow from the carcasses of animals that died naturally or were killed by predators. This practice would have provided a crucial source of protein and nutrients.

Hunting

Deliberate and planned hunting of large mammals is evidenced from sites like Boxgrove in England (500,000 years ago) and Schoningen in Germany (400,000 years ago). By around 35,000 years ago, evidence from European sites indicates planned hunting strategies, including the killing of migratory animals like reindeer and horses on a large scale during their seasonal movements. This suggests an understanding of animal behavior and the development of techniques for efficient hunting.

Fishing

Evidence of fishing practices has also been found at various archaeological sites, indicating that aquatic resources contributed to the diet of early humans.

Early Humans

The patterns of human settlement and activity can be reconstructed by analyzing the distribution of artifacts. Sites like Kilombe and Olorgesailie in Kenya, dated between 700,000 and 500,000 years ago, show concentrations of stone tools and hand axes, suggesting repeated visits to areas with abundant food resources. These locations likely served as temporary camps where early humans left traces of their activities.

From Trees, To Caves And Open-air Sites

Between 400,000 and 125,000 years ago, early humans began utilizing caves and open-air sites for shelter. Evidence from the Lazaret cave in southern France indicates the construction of shelters against cave walls, complete with hearths and diverse food remains. Similarly, at Terra Amata on the French coast, flimsy shelters were built for short-term, seasonal use.

The Use Of Fire

The deliberate and controlled use of fire is evidenced by the discovery of hearths, pieces of baked clay, and burnt bone. Fire provided warmth and light, was used for cooking, hardening wood for tools like spears, facilitating tool flaking, and scaring away dangerous animals. While early evidence of fire use exists, the deliberate control of fire is generally associated with later periods.

Early Humans: Making Tools

Tool making is not exclusive to humans; some birds and chimpanzees also use tools. However, human tool making is distinguished by anatomical and neurological adaptations enabling skilled hand use, greater memory, and complex organizational abilities. The earliest stone tools are found in Ethiopia and Kenya, with Australopithecus likely being the earliest stone tool makers. Tool making was possibly a shared activity between men and women, with women potentially using tools for gathering food for themselves and their children. By 35,000 years ago, advancements in tool technology, such as spear-throwers and the bow and arrow, improved hunting efficiency. The invention of sewing needles led to sewn clothing, and new techniques like the punch blade allowed for engravings on various materials.

The Punch Blade Technique

The punch blade technique involved removing flakes from a stone by striking it with a hammer and a punch, creating sharp blades used as knives or modified into chisels and burins for engraving. This technique allowed for the creation of intricate designs on bone, antler, ivory, and wood, as seen in the engravings of animals found on bone artifacts.

Modes Of Communication: Language And Art

Humans are unique in possessing language among living beings. Theories on language development suggest it may have originated from gestures, vocal but non-verbal communication, or primate-like calls. The emergence of spoken language is estimated to be around 2 million years ago, associated with the brain development of Homo habilis, and further evolved with the development of the vocal tract around 200,000 years ago, particularly with modern humans. Language development is also seen as closely linked to the emergence of art around 40,000-35,000 years ago, as both are forms of communication.

Language Development

The precise timing of spoken language emergence is debated, with some evidence suggesting its presence in Homo habilis around 2 million years ago, and a more significant development in the vocal tract occurring around 200,000 years ago, closely linked to modern humans. The co-evolution of language and art, both as communication mediums, is also a prominent theory.

Cave Paintings

Cave paintings, such as those found at Altamira in Spain and Lascaux and Chauvet in France, dating between 30,000 and 12,000 years ago, depict animals like bison, horses, and deer. The reasons behind the placement of paintings in specific cave areas, the selection of certain animals, and the depiction of men and women in different contexts remain subjects of interpretation. Explanations range from ritualistic practices aimed at ensuring successful hunts to the use of caves as meeting places for sharing knowledge and transmitting information across generations through art.

Early Encounters With Hunter-Gatherers In Africa

Historical accounts describe early encounters between pastoral groups and hunter-gatherer societies in Africa. One such account from 1870 details the initial contact with the !Kung San in the Kalahari Desert. These hunter-gatherers were initially fearful and hid from the pastoralists, who then assumed dominance due to their perceived strength and the !Kung San's apprehension.

The Hadza

The Hadza, a hunter-gatherer group in Tanzania, inhabit a dry, rocky savanna rich in wild foods and game. They rely primarily on wild vegetable matter, which constitutes about 80% of their diet, with meat and honey making up the remaining 20%. Their camps are mobile and are sited near water sources, changing in size and location with the seasons. The Hadza do not assert rights over land or its resources, allowing free access for hunting, gathering, and water collection.

Hunter-Gatherer Societies

The study of present-day hunter-gatherer societies by anthropologists has led to discussions about applying their findings to interpret archaeological evidence from the past. This approach is met with differing views among scholars. Some archaeologists directly use ethnographic data to understand past societies, such as interpreting early hominid sites as dry season camps based on observations of modern hunter-gatherers like the Hadza and !Kung San.

From The Present To The Past

However, others argue that ethnographic data is not directly applicable to past societies due to significant differences in economic activities, social marginalization, and environmental conditions. Furthermore, the diversity among contemporary hunter-gatherer societies, with varying practices regarding food procurement, group sizes, and division of labor, poses challenges for making definitive inferences about early human societies. While women often gather and men hunt in many contemporary groups, there are variations, and the significant contribution of women to food supply is consistently recognized, potentially leading to more equal roles between genders.

Epilogue

For millions of years, humans lived as hunter-gatherers. A major turning point in human history occurred between 10,000 and 4,500 years ago, when people in various parts of the world began to domesticate plants and animals, leading to the development of farming and pastoralism.

The Shift From Foraging To Farming

The end of the last Ice Age around 13,000 years ago brought warmer and wetter conditions, favoring the growth of grasses like wild barley and wheat. This, along with an increase in certain animal populations, led humans to settle in areas with abundant resources. Population growth likely created pressure to increase food supply, triggering the process of domestication. A combination of climatic change, population pressure, and a deeper understanding of specific plant and animal species contributed to this transformation. The Fertile Crescent, an area extending from the Mediterranean coast to Iran, saw the beginnings of farming and pastoralism around 10,000 years ago. This agricultural revolution led to the establishment of permanent settlements, the construction of houses, and the development of new tools and technologies, including pottery, new stone tools, the plow, and eventually, the use of metals and the wheel. These advancements paved the way for larger settlements and the eventual emergence of cities.